2010 Issue

As the potential stakes for participating in Division I athletics continue to grow, university administrators at private institutions are faced with important decisions regarding the direction of their athletic programs This study examines Southern Methodist University’s continued investment in an NCAA Football Bowl Subdivision program through the theoretical lens of escalation of commitment. Escalation of commitment theory is used to explain why organizations continue to financially invest in deteriorating situations. This escalation of commitment happens despite overwhelming evidence that the course of action is not advantageous to the organization. Eleven (N=11) university stakeholders were interviewed concerning their experiences with SMU over an extended period of time. Findings revealed four primary themes: priority on institutional branding, importance of campus atmosphere, perceived alumni status within the community, and university location and identity. Implications for universities and university athletic departments will be discussed in further detail.

This paper examines the motivations of NCAA Division I athletes of the need and usefulness of specialized academic support services in the era of the Academic Progress Rate (APR). Specifically, an evaluation of the historical context of these services and how they came to be so prevalent and deemed as a necessity for academic success of NCAA Division I college athletes is discussed, along with many of the unintended consequences and potential affront to academic integrity due to the competitive nature of NCAA Division I athletics and the perceived pressure on academic centers to keep athletes eligible to compete. The purpose of this study is to examine the motivations of athletes to use these services, using the theoretical construct of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, (1964). The study attempts to determine through research based conclusions if the athletes believe these services are needed to enhance academic persistence and potential for graduation and the motivations for using or not using them. This is a mixed method study taken from a stratified proportional sample of athletics in a mid-major athletic conference during the development of the APR rules and regulations. Conclusions are mixed as to motivations of athletes toward the need and viability of these services even in the face of changing academic requirements. The results are also influenced by ethnicity, gender, sport played in college, current grade point average, and high school college preparatory course GPA. The contribution to the literature is that little empirical research exists on athlete motivational perceptions of the need and adequacy of these services considering the extra layer of academic requirements via the APR.

Interpersonal relationships in the family are important to individuals, especially college students. A subgroup within the larger population of college students that calls for further examination is ethnic minority college student-athletes. The present study involved examining ethnic minority college student-athletes’ perceptions of social support they receive from their family as they attend a Predominantly White Institution (PWI). Findings indicated that student-athletes perceived various types of social support that they found beneficial to them both as student-athletes in general and as minority student-athletes in particular. Types of social support included emotional support, informational support, tangible assistance support, task appreciation support, and esteem support. Participants also offered advice to families for providing social support to student-athletes while in college. Practical applications of the findings, along with directions for future research are also discussed.

Participation in intercollegiate athletics is an important component in the overall educational experience for many Division III students. However, college athletes have regularly reported both positive and negative experiences in managing their academic and athletic commitments (Simons, Bosworth, Fujita, & Jensen, 2007). Support for broad-based success is an on-going concern for administrators and athletic department personnel, and the role of faculty, in and out of the classroom, is considered to be particularly important. (Cotten & Wilson, 2006; Pierce, 2007). This study was designed to investigate the perceptions of NCAA Division III athletes in relation to faculty interactions, and the use of academic support programs.
Surveys and focus groups were used to collect quantitative and qualitative data. Respondents considered athletic participation to be a valued component of their collegiate lives and had strong athletic identities (M = 38.75; maximum score = 49). Athletes reported generally positive views of their interactions with faculty; however, some negative perceptions also existed. Significant differences in the perceptions of Division III athletes were found based on maturity level, gender, GPA and visibility of sport played. Recommendations are offered including suggestions for increased collaboration between academic and athletic personnel, and increased use of peer advising.

In 2009, ninety-one college football games featured smaller FCS teams playing larger Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) teams. This included seven matchups where Football Champion Subdivision (FCS) schools played preseason Top 25 teams (ESPN, 2009). This study investigated both the positive and negative repercussions of the big money game on the little guy, the FCS school, in college football. Specifically, the study analyzed those factors that influenced FCS schools to schedule and play FBS football programs in 2009. The influencers identified included the lure of a big money payout, the opportunity of a lifetime (to play a top-ranked team), and the availability to meet scheduling needs. The study also investigated the detracting forces FCS schools’ athletic administrators faced when deciding to schedule the games. These detractors were identified as the threat of playing a nationally-ranked opponent, the liklihood of a lopsided loss that could affect team and booster morale for the rest of the season, and the threat of injuries. Finally, the study investigated the final outcomes FCS schools experienced after playing the games. These included financial stability, national exposure, and fundraising. While it was overly-apparent that money was the driving force behind the games, it also became clear that each FCS university reaped benefits that extended beyond their athletic program’s fiscal well-being.

This study examined perceived athletic identity, sport commitment, and the effect of sport participation to identify the impact of athletic participation on college students. This study surveyed 163 student-athletes (59%) and 112 non-athlete students (41%) from a National Collegiate Athletic Association Division-I affiliated institution (males = 172, 62.5%; females = 103, 37.5%). The survey questionnaire was developed and modified from four well-established instruments, the Athletic Identity Measurement Scale, the Sport Commitment Model, the Life Roles Inventory-Values Scales, and Athletic Involvement on the Social Life. The data collection process was initiated and completed in the 2008 spring semester. Seven sub-factors: Personal Role, Importance of Sport, Personal Attributes, Expectation of Others, Core Benefits, Social Relationship and Special Behaviors, were identified through a series of factor analyses. The participants placed their athletic role highly and moderately agreed with the researchers’ proposed core benefits of athletic participation. Overall, the findings supported past research in regards to gender and year in college difference, influence in perceived athletic identity due to sport specificity, and benefits of sport involvement. Variation in participants’ responses based on different demographic characteristics, suggestions for improving current supportive programs, and direction for future studies are further discussed.

The identity and history of the University of Mississippi (Ole Miss) has been the subject of immense political discussion and popular debate. Using a conceptual and analytical framework guided by stigma and stigma management, this study examines the debate through the lens of football recruiting at Ole Miss. Qualitative interviews with prominent football players and program administrators (i.e. coaches, recruiters) at Ole Miss, as well as prominent football players at Mississippi State University, highlight a number of negative recruiting strategies used by coaches from competing schools to portray Ole Miss in an unfavorable light when interacting with prospective student-athletes. In turn, those associated with the Ole Miss Rebel football program enlist a number of tactics designed to manage the stigmatized identity of Ole Miss. This paper underscores the need to address ways sports practices intersect with educational institutions, as well as the need to examine stigma at both the structural (institutional) and situational (interpersonal) levels.

The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of an institution’s past on the administrative decision to reclassify the institution’s athletic department to NCAA Division I. The study focused on the environment that existed prior to the reclassification and the administrative rationale used to justify the move. Two universities, University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG) and Elon University, were chosen for case study analysis. Data were collected and analyzed using case study methodologies and an adapted model of Pettigrew’s contextualist approach. Documents, archival records, semi-structured interviews, participant observations, physical artifacts, and direct observations from each institution were gathered. Three constructs from Pettigrew’s model: context, process, and content served as the basis for data analysis. Content analysis of all documents and interview transcripts revealed several themes. Results indicated that although the context at each university was different, each university believed the reclassification would improve their institutional profile among competitive peer institutions. Findings aid in gaining a better appreciation of the historical context in which the organizational change of the upward reclassification to Division I occurred. This study serves as a first step to understanding adminstrators’ rationale for moving an athletic program to Division I.

Sport sponsorship has become an increasingly important part of intercollegiate athletic revenue generation as universities have been forced to seek new and creative ways to fund their programs. The purpose of this study was to explore the benefits, criteria, and company factors that lead local corporations to embark upon sport sponsorship agreements within a specific region of mid-major sized universities. Respondents were corporate decision-makers who had forged sponsorships with three mid-major schools. Results reveal that sponsors have clear motives and preferences when agreeing to sponsor sport. On-site signage and cost were identified as being the most important information listed. Additionally, it was found that sponsorship evaluation was measured by only 55% of those surveyed.

Beyer and Hannah (2000) have suggested that a major barrier to the reform of intercollegiate athletics is its cultural significance in higher education. Even leaders within the National Collegiate Athletic Association have acknowledged the need for culture change in intercollegiate athletics (Brand, 2001; Dempsey, 2000). Yet major culture change has not occurred and few studies have examined culture within intercollegiate athletic departments (Ridpath, 2008). This gap may be due, in part, to the lack of a framework with which to analyze athletic departments as organizational cultures. Schein’s (2004) model of organizational culture is the most frequently cited perspective in the literature, but it applies primarily to corporate cultures (Hatch, 2000). Several frameworks have been developed to assess college and university cultures, but intercollegiate athletics occupies a unique space between sport and education (Beyer & Hannah, 2000). Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to offer a model for assessing the cultures of intercollegiate athletic departments. The four elements of the model—institutional culture, external environment, internal environment, and leadership/power—are presented and followed by an explanation of their interaction. The paper concludes with a case study demonstrating the use of the model to define one athletic department’s culture.

At the highest level of intercollegiate athletics, successful programs have the potential to enhance public perception, increase visibility, and enrich prestige for an institution (Beyer & Hannah, 2000; Goff, 2000). Due to these potential benefits, university officials are willing to invest tremendous amounts of energy and capital, in the form of a division reclassification, just for the opportunity to compete at this level. This transition, however, is a complex process with substantial consequences for a university and its stakeholders. Employing a mixed methodology, this case study investigated the previous management decisions and current stakeholder perceptions of an institution’s recent reclassification from National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division II to Division I. The results paralleled previous reclassification research (Roy, Graeff, & Harmon, 2008; Tomasini, 2005), and provided insightful information with regard to stakeholder perceptions of the athletic department, the transition to Division I, and the institution’s overall brand of academic quality. For the benefit of university and athletic administrators considering reclassification, vital opportunities, threats, limitations, and the potential for future research related to the topic are discussed.

All National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) member institutions designate the highest-ranking woman in athletic administration the senior woman administrator (SWA). This role is “intended to encourage and promote the involvement” of women in decision-making, enhance the representation women’s experiences and perspectives, and support women’s interests in intercollegiate athletics (NCAA, n.d. [a]). However, previous research reveals inconsistency in the tasks and responsibilities associated with the SWA role. Furthermore, it is not well established if this role is a mechanism to advance women to leadership roles or a terminal position (Hatfield, 2009).

To better understand the influence of the SWA role on the advancement of women leaders, this research introduces the historical context of women’s leadership in higher education. This historical context draws on the strategies women leaders used prior to the passage of Title IX. These strategies form a framework to analyze interview data with women who hold the SWA title among Division I institutions in the Far West. Findings illustrate four dilemmas – The Early “SWA” vs. Today’s Senior Associate Athletic Administrator, The SWA – The Sole Woman Administrator?, The SWA and Title IX, The SWA As A Terminal Position, and, “My SWA” – The Senior Woman Advocate. Together these dilemmas characterize this role and its limitations for promoting a critical mass of women leaders in intercollegiate athletics.

Forecasting future obstacles, W.E.B. Du Bois once envisaged color to be the dilemma facing the United States of America (USA) in the 20th Century. Wherein some individuals may disagree with this claim and counter by alleging America has moved towards a post racial society, unremitted racial structuring subsisted in the 20th century and has continued to cast a dark shadow in 21st century American society. The realm of sport is no exception as Black student-athletes comprise approximately half of the football participants at the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) level. Oddly enough, Black head coaches are severely underrepresented at this level. Hence, whereas athletic directors, boosters, and other persons of decision-making authority implicitly acknowledge Black student-athletes’ athletic prowess, the institution of college athletics has historically devalued Black coaches’ capacity to guide a team. This is to say, potential Black coaches have been deemed incapable, not up to par with their White counterparts. Due to this conceived incapableness, Black coaches are analogous to individuals in lower stratums of caste-like societies. Critical race theory (CRT) and social dominance theory (SDT) are utilized as epistemological lenses to further shed light on these dire circumstances. Elaborated connections, recommendations as well as implications for current and future Black head coaches are discussed.

Perceptions regarding discrimination factors preventing the advancement of women in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) athletic departments were sought. A five point agree/disagree Likert-scale survey containing 20 discrimination factors was electronically mailed to all NCAA Senior Woman Administrators (SWAs) throughout the United States. The return of 406 of 841 surveys made for a 48.3% return rate. Significant differences with regards to Likert-scale items of agreement/disagreement were found between the following SWA demographics: marital status, reporting structure, education completed, years of experience, and NCAA Division. Overall, the top five discrimination factors were: the domination of the “old boys’ club,” inequitable salaries (wage discrimination), lack of women mentors, family commitments conflicting with job, and job burnout.

Intercollegiate athletics at colleges and universities have been referred to as “American higher education’s ‘peculiar institution.’ Their presence is pervasive, yet their proper balance with academics remains puzzling” (Thelin, 1994, p.1). Scandals such as the one at the University of Colorado at Boulder involving improper conduct of athletes and improper recruiting practices highlight the problems in athletic departments all over the country (Jacobsen, as cited in Umbach, Palmer, Kuh and Hannah, 2006). Organizations such as the Knight Commission, Coalition on Intercollegiate Athletics (COIA), and the Drake Group dedicate much of their resources toward examining reform in intercollegiate athletics. This all begs the question: How has the rise of high-profile intercollegiate athletics impacted post-secondary education? The purpose of this literature review was to examine the acceleration and impact of high profile spectator sports on American higher education. Specifically, the purpose is to serve as a primer for those unfamiliar with intercollegiate athletics at postsecondary institutions. The researchers sought to examine the rise of intercollegiate athletics at Division I schools, the use of “brand equity” as an institution, the commercialization of big time college sports, and the impact these have on the athletes, faculty, and higher education as a whole. Lastly, the researchers provide recommendations to those involved in setting policy for higher education athletics in order to help combat the current trends in intercollegiate athletics in the hopes of eliminating the negative actions that have become the norm in college athletics.

Intercollegiate athletics at colleges and universities have been referred to as American higher education’s “peculiar institution.” Their presence is pervasive, yet their proper balance with academics remains puzzling” (Thelin, 1994, p.1). In A Larger Sense of Purpose, Harold Shapiro (2005) opined, “Why should an institution whose primary devotion to education and scholarship devote so much effort to competitive athletics?” (p. 29). Recent scandals in intercollegiate athletic give one pause: at the University of Colorado at Boulder, improper conduct of athletes and improper recruiting practices were cited after an 18 year old recruit was taken to a strip club; The president of Auburn University recently took a trip on a booster’s private jet to “woo” a football coach at another university when they already had one under contract; and at Purdue University, the women’s basketball team is serving out a two year suspension after allegations that a former assistant coach made over 100 impermissible recruiting calls (Brunt, 2007). These problems highlight the issues in athletic departments all over the country (Jacobsen, as cited in Umbach, Palmer, Kuh and Hannah, 2006). Faculty members at institutions with some of the nation’s largest athletic programs gathered recently to discuss what role they should play in their schools’ athletic programs. They grappled with such issues as how and whether faculty should be involved, and how professors, coaches and sports administrators can collaborate to help athletes perform well in the classroom and on the field (Sander, 2007). This all begs the question: How has the rise of high-profile intercollegiate athletics impacted post-secondary education?